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Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 290: E631-E642, 2006. First published November 1, 2005; doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00460.2005
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Meal feeding enhances formation of eIF4F in skeletal muscle: role of increased eIF4E availability and eIF4G phosphorylation

Thomas C. Vary and Christopher J. Lynch

Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Penn State University College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania

Submitted 21 September 2005 ; accepted in final form 28 October 2005


   ABSTRACT
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 ABSTRACT
METHODS
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 DISCUSSION
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Feeding promotes protein accretion in skeletal muscle through a stimulation of the mRNA translation initiation phase of protein synthesis either secondarily to nutrient-induced rises in insulin or owing to direct effects of nutrients themselves. The present set of experiments establishes the effects of meal feeding on potential signal transduction pathways that may be important in accelerating mRNA translation initiation. Gastrocnemius muscle from male Sprague-Dawley rats trained to consume a meal consisting of rat chow was sampled before, during, and after the meal. Meal feeding enhanced the assembly of the active eIF4G·eIF4E complex, which returned to basal levels within 3 h of removal of food. The increased assembly of the active eIF4G·eIF4E complex was associated with a marked 10-fold rise in phosphorylation of eIF4G(Ser1108) and a decreased assembly of inactive 4E-BP1·eIF4E complex. The reduced assembly of 4E-BP1·eIF4E complex was associated with a 75-fold increase in phosphorylation of 4E-BP1 in the {gamma}-form during feeding. Phosphorylation of S6K1 on Ser789 was increased by meal feeding, although the extent of phosphorylation was greater at 0.5 h after feeding than after 1 h. Phosphorylation of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) on Ser2448 or Ser2481, an upstream kinase responsible for phosphorylating both S6K1 and 4E-BP1, was increased at all times during meal feeding, although the extent of phosphorylation was greater at 0.5 h after feeding than after 1 h. Phosphorylation of PKB, an upstream kinase responsible for phosphorylating mTOR, was elevated only after 0.5 h of meal feeding for Thr308, whereas phosphorylation Ser473 was significantly elevated at only 0.5 and 1 h after initiation of feeding. We conclude from these studies that meal feeding stimulates two signal pathways in skeletal muscle that lead to elevated eIF4G·eIF4E complex assembly through increased phosphorylation of eIF4G and decreased association of 4E-BP1 with eIF4E.

amino acids; nutrition; feeding; ribosomal protein S6 kinase; eukaryotic initiation factor-4E; eukaryotic initiation factor-4E-binding protein-1; eukaryotic initiation factor-4G; eukaryotic initiation factor-4F

THE SYNTHESIS OF SKELETAL MUSCLE PROTEINS is rapidly stimulated after oral intake of nutrients (67), through an acceleration of mRNA translation initiation. Two major steps in translation initiation can control protein synthesis. The first limiting step is the binding of met-tRNAimet to the 40S ribosomal subunit to form the 43S preinitiation complex, mediated by eukaryotic initiation factor-2 (eIF2) and regulated by the activity of eIF2B. Evidence suggests that feeding does not increase formation of 43S preinitiation complex. The second regulatory step involves the recognition, unwinding, and binding of mRNA to the 43S preinitiation complex, catalyzed by a multi-subunit complex of eukaryotic factors referred to as eIF4F (45, 46, 49). In contrast to formation of 43S preinitiation complex, acute provision of nutrients enhances assembly of active eIF4F complex (7, 67).

eIF4F is composed of 1) eIF4A (an RNA helicase that unwinds secondary structure in 5'-untranslated region of mRNA), 2) eIF4E (a protein that binds directly to the m7GTP cap structure present at the 5' end of most eukaryotic mRNAs), and 3) eIF4G (a protein that functions as a scaffold for eIF4E, eIF4A, and the mRNA and the ribosome). Binding of eIF4G with eIF4E appears important in accelerating mRNA translation initiation. eIF4G appears to be the nucleus around which the initiation complex forms, because it has binding sites not only for eIF4E but also for eIF4A and eIF3 (26). eIF4E activity plays a critical role in determining global rates of mRNA translation, because essentially every mammalian mRNA contains the m7GTP cap structure at its 5' end. eIF4G, in addition to other translation functions, recruits the 40S ribosomal subunit to the 5' end of mRNA, coordinates the circularization of mRNA through eIF4E and poly(A)-binding protein interactions (64), and assists in Mnk1 and eIF4E association (41, 63). The eIF4Gs are phosphoproteins. Assembly of an active eIF4G·eIF4E complex is dependent both on the availability of eIF4E and on phosphorylation of eIF4G.

Phosphorylation of eIF4G on residues in the COOH-terminal region of the eIF4G protein including Ser1108 results in a fully active eIF4G (44). Increased phosphorylation of eIF4G on Ser1108 is associated with enhanced formation of active eIF4G·eIF4E complex in cells in culture (36, 44), leading to an increased rate of protein synthesis. Likewise, elevated phosphorylation of eIF4G correlates with mRNA translation in skeletal muscle during perfusion of hindlimb with buffer containing leucine (8) or following oral administration of a single bolus of leucine (10).

eIF4E availability is dependent in part on the translation repressor protein eIF4E-binding protein-1 (4E-BP1). Hence, 4E-BP1 may regulate eIF4G·eIF4E complex assembly. 4E-BP1 is a small protein that, in the hypophosphorylated state, tightly binds eIF4E and blocks the ability of eIF4E to bind to eIF4G, thereby limiting cap-dependent translation. 4E-BP1 phosphorylation correlates with an increase translational stimulation after treatment of cells with insulin or growth factors (for review see Refs. 20, 22, and 56). The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) is thought to be the upstream kinase that phosphorylates 4E-BP1. Likewise, the 70-kDa ribosomal protein S6 kinase (S6K1) has been implicated in augmenting the translation of a subset of mRNAs that possess a 5' tract of oligopyrimidines (5'-TOP) including elongation factors. S6K1's multistep activation involves mTOR and PDK-1-dependent Ser/Thr phosphorylation. Augmenting mTOR activity enhances translation via phosphorylation of S6K1 (6) and 4E-BP1 (28, 30, 31).

The cellular pathways by which meal feeding modulates protein synthesis are beginning to be elucidated. The meal is composed of several nutrients, including carbohydrates and amino acids. Carbohydrates, besides providing energy sources, also serve to enhance insulin secretion. Insulin, in turn, can stimulate PKB through a phosphatidylinositol (PI) 3-kinase-dependent pathway. Amino acids, on the other hand, fail to stimulate PI 3-kinase or PKB (Akt), indicating that signaling pathways that become activated by insulin may not be necessary or sufficient for mediating the effects of amino acids on protein synthesis (7, 18, 24, 30, 31). Alternatively, amino acids, and leucine in particular, consistently activate S6K1 and the translation repressor 4E-BP1 through enhanced phosphorylation using both in vitro (21, 23, 37, 62) and in vivo models (2, 3, 5, 7, 30, 31, 67). Phosphorylating S6K1 and 4E-BP1 are associated with an acceleration of mRNA translation initiation, leading to a stimulation of protein synthesis. The S6K1 and 4E-BP1 are phosphorylated by a common upstream kinase, mTOR, suggesting a role for mTOR in mediating, in part, the effects of leucine to phosphorylate these two proteins (12, 18). Indeed, structure-activity relationships indicate that leucine was the most potent amino acid in augmenting phosphorylation of 4E-BP1 in adipocytes (29) or H4IIE hepatocytes (48) in culture.

The purpose of the present set of experiments was to define the temporal relationship between assembly of active eIF4G·eIF4E complex following meal feeding and subsequent removal of food. We wished to test the hypothesis that assembly of active eIF4G·eIF4E complex occurred temporally with an enhanced availability of eIF4E and increased phosphorylation of eIF4G following meal feeding and subsequent removal of food.


   METHODS
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 ABSTRACT
 METHODS
RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
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Meal feeding. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were purchased from Charles River and maintained at our animal facility for ≥7 days before the start of the meal-feeding protocol. Animals were caged in pairs rather than singly to reduce anxiety-induced changes in food intake. The Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee approved the animal protocols. For the meal-feeding regimen, the rats were adapted to a reverse light cycle (the dark cycle began at 7:00 AM and the light cycle began at 7:00 PM) beginning on the 8th day after arrival in the animal quarters. The animals were trained over a period of 12 days to consume a meal when it was presented. Food was provided in two metal food cups for 3 h beginning 30 min after the beginning of the dark cycle. The diet consisted of Teklad Diet 8604. The concentration of leucine in this diet is 2.04% and protein concentration is 24.48%. On day 12, animals were weighed (304 + 3.9 g) and anesthetized (Nembutal, 50 mg/kg body wt ip) at six different times relative to the start of the meal. For baseline, a group of animals was killed 0.5 h before presentation of the meal (T–0.5 h). After the meal was provided, animals were sampled at 0.5, 1, 3, 6, and 9 h after the start of the meal. Venous blood was collected via syringe. The gastrocnemius was excised and immediately frozen between clamps precooled to the temperature of liquid nitrogen. The gastrocnemius was powdered under liquid nitrogen with a mortar and pestle, and the powdered tissue was stored at –85°C until extraction.

Frozen powdered gastrocnemius was homogenized in 7 volumes of buffer A (20 mM HEPES, pH 7.4, 100 mM KCl, 0.2 mM EDTA, 2 mM EGTA, 1 mM DTT, 50 mM NaF, 50 mM beta-glycerolphosphate, 0.1 mM PMSF, 1 mM benzamidine, 0.5 mM sodium vanadate, and 1 µM microcystin LR) by use of a Polytron homogenizer. The homogenate was centrifuged at 10,000 g for 10 min at 4°C, and the pellet was discarded. An aliquot of the 10,000-g supernatant was mixed with an equal volume of 2x Laemmli-sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) sample buffer (65°C) and then subjected to protein immunoblot analysis. Another aliquot was used to measure the protein concentration by the Biuret method, with crystalline bovine serum albumin serving as a standard. A third aliquot was used for determination of association of eIF4E with either eIF4G or 4E-BP1.

Quantification of 4E-BP1·eIF4E and eIF4G·eIF4E complexes. The association of eIF4E with 4E-BP1 or eIF4G was determined in gastrocnemius using immunoblot techniques as previously described in our laboratory (54–58, 60). eIF4E as well as 4E-BP1·eIF4E and eIF4G·eIF4E complexes were immunoprecipitated from aliquots of 10,000-g supernatants by use of an anti-eIF4E monoclonal antibody (gift of Dr. Leonard Jefferson, Penn State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA). The antibody-antigen complex was collected by incubation for 1 h with BioMag goat anti-mouse IgG beads (PerSeptive BioSystems, Framingham, MA). Before use, the beads were washed in 1% nonfat dry milk in buffer B (50 mM Tris·HCl, pH 7.4, 150 mM NaCl, 5 mM EDTA, 0.1% beta-mercaptoethanol, 0.5% Triton X-100, 50 mM NaF, 50 mM beta-glycerolphosphate, 0.1 mM PMSF, 1 mM benzamidine, and 0.5 mM sodium vanadate). The beads were captured using a magnetic sample rack and washed twice with buffer B and once with buffer B containing 500 mM rather than 150 mM NaCl. Resuspending in SDS sample buffer and boiling for 5 min eluted protein bound to the beads. The beads were collected by centrifugation, and the supernatants were subjected to electrophoresis either on a 7.5% polyacrylamide gel for quantitation of eIF4G or on a 15% polyacrylamide gel for quantitation of 4E-BP1 and eIF4E. Proteins were then electrophoretically transferred to a PVDF membrane (Biotrace; PALL, Pensacola, FL). The PVDF membranes were incubated with a mouse anti-human eIF4E antibody (gift of Dr. Leonard Jefferson), a rabbit anti-rat 4E-BP1 antibody, or a rabbit anti-eIF4G antibody (Bethyl Laboratories, Montgomery, TX) overnight at 4°C. The blots were then developed using an enhanced chemiluminesence (ECL) Western blotting kit per the manufacturer's instructions (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech, Piscataway, NJ). Films were scanned using a Microtek ScanMaker III scanner equipped with a transparent media adaptor connected to a Macintosh computer. Images were obtained using the ScanWizard Plugin (Microtek) for Adobe Photoshop and quantitated using NIH Image 1.63 software. The abundance of eIF4G and 4E-BP1 was normalized to the amount of eIF4E in the immunoprecipitate.

Determination of phosphorylation state of eIF4G. To measure the relative extent of phosphorylation of eIF4G, proteins were separated by 7.5% SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE). After electrophoresis, the proteins were transferred to PVDF membranes (Biotrace). The membranes were incubated with antibodies specific for phosphorylated eIF4G(Ser1108) (Cell Signaling Technology, Beverly, MA) overnight at 4°C. The blots were then developed using an ECL Western blotting kit per the manufacturer's instructions (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech). Films were scanned using a Microtek ScanMaker III scanner equipped with a transparent media adaptor connected to a Macintosh computer. Images were obtained using the ScanWizard Plugin (Microtek) for Adobe Photoshop and quantitated using NIH Image 1.63 software. After development of the immunoblot, the membranes were treated with a solution containing 62.5 mM Tris·HCl (pH 6.7), 100 mM beta-mercaptoethanol, and 2% (wt/vol) SDS to remove antibodies as per the manufacturer's instructions. This procedure effectively removed all signals resulting from incubation with the phospho-eIF4G antibody. The membranes were blocked with nonfat dry milk and then immunoblotted with the antibody that recognizes eIF4G independently of its phosphorylation state (Bethyl Laboratories). The blots were developed using ECL (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech), and the autoradiographs were scanned and analyzed as described above. The phosphorylated eIF4G signal densities were normalized to the respective total eIF4G signal, reflecting the relative ratio of phosphorylated eIF4G to total eIF4G.

Determination of phosphorylation state of 4E-BP1. The phosphorylated forms of 4E-BP1 were measured in gastrocnemius extracts after boiling of an aliquot (200 µl) of the skeletal muscle homogenates for 5 min. The boiled homogenate was centrifuged in a microcentrifuge at room temperature, and the supernatant was decanted. An equal volume of 2x Laemmli-SDS buffer (65°C) was then added to the supernatant. The various phosphorylated forms of 4E-BP1 (designated {alpha}, beta, and {gamma}) were separated by SDS-PAGE and quantitated by protein immunoblot analysis as described previously (54–58, 60).

Determination of phosphorylation of mTOR. Another portion of the homogenate was electrophoresed and transferred as described above for eIF4G. The PVDF membranes were then incubated with either an antibody that recognizes the phosphorylated form of mTOR(Ser2448) or one that recognizes mTOR(Ser2481) (Cell Signaling Technology). The blots were developed and analyzed as described above for eIF4G. After development of the immunoblot, the PVDF membranes were treated to remove the phosphospecific antibodies, as described in Determination of phosphorylation state of eIF4G. The PVDF membranes were blocked with Tris-buffered saline supplemented with 0.1% Tween containing 5% (wt/vol) nonfat dry milk and then immunoblotted with the antibody that recognizes mTOR independently of its phosphorylation state (Bethyl Laboratories). The blots were developed using ECL, and the autoradiographs were scanned and analyzed as described in Determination of phosphorylation state of eIF4G. The phosphorylated mTOR signal densities were normalized to the respective total mTOR signal, reflecting the relative ratio of phosphorylated mTOR to total mTOR.

Determination of phosphorylation state of S6K1. Avruch et al. (65) have provided evidence that S6K1 activity in vivo is most closely related to the phosphorylation of residue Thr389. To examine the activation of S6K1, homogenates of skeletal muscle were mixed with 2x Laemmli-SDS sample buffer and subjected to electrophoresis on 12.5% SDS-PAGE Criterion gels (Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA). Proteins were then electrophoretically transferred onto PVDF membranes and blocked with Tris-buffered saline supplemented with 0.1% Tween and containing 5% (wt/vol) nonfat dry milk. Initially, the PVDF membranes were probed with antibody that recognizes only S6K1 phosphorylated on amino acid Thr389 (Cell Signaling Technology), the phosphorylation site required for activation of the kinase (65). The blots were developed using an ECL Western blotting kit according to the manufacturer's (Amersham Biosciences) instructions. We used this property as an indicator of the effect of meal feeding on the activation of the kinase. After quantification of the relative intensity of the signal for phosphorylation at Thr389, the phosphospecific antibodies were removed from PVDF membranes as described in Determination of phosphorylation state of eIF4G. The blots were then probed with an antibody (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Santa Cruz, CA) that recognizes total S6K1 (i.e., both phosphorylated and unphosphorylated forms). Results are presented as the ratio of the densitometric analysis of blot for phosphorylated S6K1(Thr389) divided by total S6K1 performed on same gel.

Determination of phosphorylation of PKB. Another portion of the homogenate was electrophoresed and transferred as described above for eIF4G. The membranes were then incubated with phosphospecific antibodies that recognize either the phospho-PKB(Thr308) or the phospho-PKB(Ser473) (Cell Signaling Technology). After development of the immunoblot, the PVDF membranes were treated to remove the phosphospecific antibodies as described above for eIF4G. The membranes were blocked with nonfat dry milk and then immunoblotted with the antibody that recognizes PKB independently of its phosphorylation state (Cell Signaling Technology). The blots were developed using ECL, and the autoradiographs were scanned and analyzed as described in Determination of phosphorylation state of eIF4G. The phosphorylated PKB signal densities were normalized to the respective total PKB signal, reflecting the relative ratio of phosphorylated PKB to total PKB.

Determination of phosphorylation state of tumor supressor complex 2. The phosphorylation of tumor supressor complex 2 (TSC2) was analyzed by initially immunoblotting first with an antibody that specifically recognized TSC2 phosphorylated on Thr1462 (Cell Signaling Technology). After development of the blot as described above in Determination of phosphorylation state of eIF4G, the membranes were treated with a solution containing 62.5 mM Tris·HCl (pH 6.7), 100 mM beta-mercaptoethanol, and 2% (wt/vol) SDS to remove the antibodies. This procedure effectively removed all signal resulting from incubation with the phospho-TSC2 antibody (data not shown). The membranes were blocked with nonfat dry milk and then immunoblotted with the antibody that recognizes TSC2 independently of its phosphorylation state. The blots were developed using ECL and the autoradiographs were scanned and analyzed as described above in Determination of phosphorylation state of eIF4G. The phosphorylated TSC2 signal densities were normalized to the respective total TSC2 signal, reflecting the relative ratio of phosphorylated TSC2 to total TSC2.

Determination of plasma amino acids. The blood was centrifuged immediately and the plasma decanted. An aliquot was deproteinized. Amino acids in the supernatant underwent a precolumn derivatization with o-phthaldialdehyde followed immediately by HPLC using an Adsorbosphere OPA column (Alltech Associates, Deerfield, IL) as described previously (30).

Statistics. Values are presented as means ± SE of multiple densitometric analyses for each group. Results were compared using ANOVA statistical analysis with a Student-Newman-Keuls post hoc test when ANOVA indicated a significant difference (P < 0.05). Differences were considered significant when P < 0.05.


   RESULTS
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 METHODS
 RESULTS
DISCUSSION
 GRANTS
 REFERENCES
 
Meal feeding-induced formation of active eIF4G·eIF4E complex is associated with increased phosphorylation of eIF4G and dissociation of eIF4E from 4E-BP1. The abundance of the eIF4G·eIF4E complex was determined by immunoprecipitating eIF4E from skeletal muscle with a monoclonal antibody followed by Western immunoblot analysis for eIF4E and eIF4G. Meal feeding brought about a pronounced two- to threefold increase in the abundance of eIF4G associated with eIF4E (Fig. 1). After the meal, the amount of eIF4G associated with eIF4E returned to values observed before initiation of meal feeding. The changes in abundance of eIF4G·eIF4G complex were not the result of an increased expression of eIF4E or eIF4G protein, as there were no significant differences in the eIF4E or eIF4G content in gastrocnemius at any of the time points investigated (data not shown).


Figure 1
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  		Fig. 1. Effect of meal feeding on eukaryotic initiation factor (eIF)4G associated with eIF4E. Animals were fasted overnight. In the morning of the experiment, gastrocnemius muscle was sampled 0.5 h before feeding and then at 0.5, 1, 3, 6, and 9 h after initiation of the feeding regimen. Food was provided for the first 3 h (filled bars), after which food was removed from the cage (hatched bars). Equal volumes of eIF4E immunoprecipitated from gastrocnemius were immunoblotted with antibodies specific for eIF4G. Abundance of eIF4E was determined by measuring eIF4E in the immunoprecipitates. Graph shows the means of individual densitometric analysis of several immunoblots of eIF4G divided by the amount of eIF4E in the immunoprecipitate, as described in METHODS. Values are shown are means ± SE; n = 10–11 in each group. eIF4G associated with eIF4E, ANOVA P < 0.0001, F = 8.094. *P < 0.05 vs. time T–0.5 h; {dagger}P < 0.01 vs. time T+0.5, T+3, and T+6 h.

 
The interaction between eIF4E and eIF4G can be regulated, at least in part, by several mechanisms, including the phosphorylation of eIF4G and/or availability of eIF4E. Increased phosphorylation of eIF4G on Ser1108 is associated with enhanced formation of active eIF4G·eIF4E complex (44). We examined the phosphorylation state of eIF4G in skeletal muscle extracts during meal feeding and following removal of food. eIF4G phosphorylation on Ser1108 in gastrocnemius homogenates was analyzed by Western blot and normalized for the total amount of eIF4G. The extent of phosphorylation of eIF4G was significantly increased 17-fold during meal feeding (Fig. 2). As was observed with the abundance of eIF4G·eIF4E complex, the phosphorylation of eIF4G returned to values observed before initiation of meal feeding following the meal.


Figure 2
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  		Fig. 2. Effect of meal feeding on phosphorylation of eIF4G in homogenates and in eIF4E immunoprecipitates. Top: data obtained for phosphorylated eIF4G by Western blot analysis using muscle homogenates obtained from animals described in Fig. 1. Bottom: data obtained for phosphorylated eIF4G by Western blot analysis using samples generated after immunoprecipitation of eIF4E obtained from gastrocnemius. Equal amounts of protein in homogenates from gastrocnemius and equal volumes of immunoprecipitated eIF4E were immunoblotted with antibodies specific for the phosphorylated form of eIF4G(Ser1108). Blots were stripped and immunoblotted with an antibody that recognizes both phosphorylated and nonphosphorylated forms of eIF4G. Graph shows the means of individual densitometric analysis of several immunoblots of eIF4G phosphorylation on Ser1108 corrected for the total amount of eIF4G, as described in METHODS. Values shown are means ± SE; n = 7–11 at each time point. Top: ANOVA P < 0.001, F = 8.09. *P < 0.05 vs. time T–0.5 h; {dagger}P < 0.01 vs. time T+0.5, T+3, and T+6 h. Bottom: ANOVA P < 0.0001, F = 20.26. §P < 0.001 vs. T–0.5 h; {ddagger}P < 0.001, T+0.5, T+1, and T+3 h.

 
In addition, it was necessary to evaluate whether the increase in phosphorylation of eIF4G was observed in the eIF4G·eIF4E complex. To accomplish this, we evaluated specifically the phosphorylation of eIF4G on Ser1108 in the eIF4E immunoprecipitated samples (Fig. 2). We (8) previously established that the extent of eIF4G phosphorylation was similar in homogenates and the eIF4E immunoprecipitate. At the T–0.5 h time point, the extent of phosphorylation of eIF4G on Ser1108 in the eIF4E immunoprecipitate was extremely low, as was observed in the whole tissue homogenates. With initiation of feeding the extent of phosphorylation of eIF4G in the eIF4E immunoprecipitate increased tenfold and remained elevated throughout the feeding period. This observation is in contrast to studies where eIF4G phosphorylation was not sustained in the gonadotroph cell line LbT2 in the presence of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (36). The phosphorylation of eIF4G in the eIF4E immunoprecipitate returned to values observed prior to initiation of meal feeding following the meal.

Increasing the availability of eIF4E for formation of eIF4G·eIF4E complex can also occur through diminished binding of eIF4E to the translational repressor 4E-BP1. Binding of eIF4E to 4E-BP1 prevents the formation of an active eIF4E·eIF4G complex, presumably because 4E-BP1 blocks the binding site for eIF4G (17, 40). A shift in the distribution of eIF4E should lead to a reduction in the abundance of the inactive 4E-BP1·eIF4E complex following meal feeding. The association of eIF4E with 4E-BP1 was determined in skeletal muscle by immunoprecipitating eIF4E with a monoclonal antibody followed by immunoblot analysis for eIF4E and 4E-BP1. Results were normalized to the total eIF4E in the immunoprecipitate. Meal feeding decreased the assembly of the inactive 4E-BP1·eIF4E complex (Fig. 3). Withdrawal of the meal increased the formation of the inactive 4E-BP1·eIF4E complex compared with rats receiving a meal to values seen at T–0.5 h.


Figure 3
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  		Fig. 3. Effect of meal feeding on the assembly 4E-BP1·eIF4E complex and phosphorylation of 4E-BP1. Top: amount of 4E-BP1 associated with eIF4E was assessed by immunoblotting the IP from skeletal muscle obtained Fig. 1 for 4E-BP1. The figure provides means of individual densitometric analysis of several immunoblots of 4E-BP1 associated with eIF4E, as described in METHODS. Bottom: phosphorylation state of 4EBP1 was measured in homogenates of skeletal muscle as described in METHODS. 4E-BP1 in the {gamma}-phosphorylated form is as described in METHODS. The bar graph shows the means of individual densitometric analysis of several immunoblots of 4E-BP1 in the {gamma}-form divided by the total amount of 4E-BP1, as described in METHODS. Values shown are means ± SE for n = 4–12 in each group. 4E-BP1 associated with eIF4E, ANOVA P < 0.001, F = 9.086. 4E-BP1 in the {gamma}-phosphorylated form, ANOVA P < 0.001, F = 36.16. *P < 0.001 vs. T–0.5 h; {dagger}P < 0.001 vs. T+0.5, T+1, and T+3 h.

 
Meal feeding increases phosphorylation of 4E-BP1. The interaction of 4E-BP1 with eIF4E is regulated in part through phosphorylation of 4E-BP1 (15, 27, 42, 43). Dissociation of eIF4E·4E-BP1 complex occurs when 4E-BP1 becomes hyperphosphorylated. Therefore, we examined the ability of meal feeding to induce phosphorylation of 4E-BP1 to determine whether the decreased assembly of 4E-BP1·eIF4E resulted from an increased phosphorylation of 4E-BP1. 4E-BP1 when phosphorylated resolves into distinct electrophoretic forms ({alpha}, beta, and {gamma}) with the {gamma}-form representing the highest phosphorylated form. The results reveal that ~1% of the total 4E-BP1 was present in the {gamma}-form in gastrocnemius prior to feeding (Fig. 3). The extent of phosphorylation of 4E-BP1 was significantly elevated following meal feeding. The percentage of 4E-BP1 present in the {gamma}-form increased to ~35–40% in gastrocnemius 0.5, 1, and 3 h after the start of the meal. There was no significant difference in the proportion of 4E-BP1 present in the {gamma}-form between T+0.5 h, T+1 h, and T+3 h. Withdrawal of the meal reduced the percentage of 4E-BP1 present in the {gamma}-form compared with rats receiving a meal to values not significantly different than those observed at T–0.5 h.

S6K1 phosphorylation. S6K1 is a threonine/serine kinase that phosphorylates ribosomal protein S6 and promotes translation of mRNA containing a TOP motif. Alterations in phosphorylation of S6K1 parallel changes with the phosphorylation of 4E-BP1 under a variety of conditions. S6K1 is activated by multisite phosphorylation that results in isoforms exhibiting retarded electrophoretic mobility when subjected to SDS-PAGE (13, 25). Analysis of the multisite phosphorylations of S6K1 indicates that its activity is dependent on phosphorylation of Thr389 (65, 66). Therefore, phosphorylation of S6K1(Thr389) following meal feeding was examined (Fig. 4). At the beginning of the experiment prior to feeding, phosphorylation on S6K1(Thr389) was below the level of detection. After presentation of the meal, the phosphorylation of S6K1(Thr389) increased. The extent of phosphorylation of S6K1 was significantly increased by T+0.5 h and remained significantly elevated throughout the period when food was provided (T+0.5–T+3 h). However, the overall extent of phosphorylation fell during the feeding period such that the extent of phosphorylation was significantly lower at T+1 h and T+3 h compared with T+0.5 h. After withdrawal of the meal, the extent of phosphorylation of S6K1 was reduced to low levels when compared with T+3 h. It was not significantly different at T+6 h compared with T–0.5 h.


Figure 4
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  		Fig. 4. Effect of meal feeding on phosphorylation of ribosomal protein S6 kinase (S6K1). Homogenates obtained from animals in Fig. 1 were analyzed for phosphorylated S6K1. Equal amounts of protein in homogenates from gastrocnemius were immunoblotted with antibodies specific for the phosphorylated form of S6K1(Thr389). Blots were stripped and immunoblotted with an antibody that recognizes both phosphorylated and nonphosphorylated forms of S6K1. Figure shows a bar graph of the means of individual densitometric analysis of several immunoblots where S6K1 phosphorylation on Thr389 was measured and corrected for the total amount of S6K1, as described in METHODS. ND, no scannable phospho-S6K1(Thr389). ANOVA P < 0.001, F = 14.08. *P < 0.05 vs. T+0.5 h; §P < 0.05 vs. T+3 h.

 
mTOR phopshorylation. Next, we examined the potential role of mTOR signaling in mediating the effects of meal feeding on eIF4F. mTOR is believed to be an upstream kinase responsible for phosphorylating both 4E-BP1 and S6K1 (9, 42). Phosphorylation of mTOR on residues Ser2448 and Ser2481 has been used to monitor the activity of mTOR (6, 39). Therefore, we examined the phosphorylation state of Ser2448 and Ser2481 following meal feeding. Initiation of meal feeding enhanced phosphorylation of Ser2448 was significantly increased approximately twofold after 30 min. Thereafter the extent of phosphorylation of Ser2448 was reduced relative to T+0.5 h. However, with the cessation of feeding, the extent of phosphorylation of Ser2448 was further reduced compared with T+3 h. There were no significant differences between pre- and postfeeding. A similar pattern was observed when the phosphorylation state of Ser2481 was examined (Fig. 5).


Figure 5
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  		Fig. 5. Effect of meal feeding on phosphorylation of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR). Equal amounts of protein in homogenates from gastrocnemius of animals described in Fig. 1 were immunoblotted with antibodies specific for the phosphorylated form of mTOR(Ser2448) (top) and mTOR(Ser2481) (bottom). Blots were stripped and immunoblotted with an antibody that recognizes the both phosphorylated and nonphosphorylated forms of mTOR. Bar graph shows the means of individual densitometric analysis of several immunoblots of mTOR phosphorylation on Ser2448 and Ser2481 in homogenates corrected for the total amount of mTOR, as described in METHODS. Values shown are means ± SE; n = 15–17 in each group. Phospho-Ser2448, ANOVA P < 0.001, F = 10.34. Phospho-Ser2481, ANOVA P < 0.001, F = 9.18. *P < 0.05 vs. T–0.5 h; {dagger}P < 0.05 vs. T+0.5 h; §P < 0.05 vs. T+3 h.

 
PKB phosphorylation. Several reports suggest that PKB lies upstream of mTOR (35). PKB, also known as Akt, is a serine/threonine kinase that is activated by phosphorylation of two critical serine/threonine residues (i.e., Thr308 and Ser473) (1). Linkage of the PKB pathway in skeletal muscle with changes in phosphorylation of not only mTOR but also 4E-BP1 and S6K1 may help define potential downstream regulators of the responses to meal feeding. Phosphorylation of Thr308 and Ser473 were coordinately regulated during meal feeding (Fig. 6). Immediately after the initiation of feeding, the phosphorylation of PKB rose over twofold. Unlike eIF4G and 4EBP-1, phosphorylation of PKB did not remain elevated over the course of the feeding protocol. Instead, phosphorylation of Thr308 and Ser473 was significantly lower after 1 h of meal feeding compared with T+0.5 h, such that there were no differences between T+1 h and T–0.5 h. The extent of phosphorylation remained constant for the remainder of the experimental protocol.


Figure 6
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  		Fig. 6. Effect of meal feeding on phosphorylation of PKB. Equal amounts of protein in homogenates from gastrocnemius of animals described in Fig. 1 were immunoblotted with antibodies specific for the phosphorylated form of PKB(Thr308) and (Ser473). Blots were stripped and immunoblotted with an antibody that recognizes both the phosphorylated and nonphosphorylated forms of PKB. Bar graph shows the means of individual densitometric analysis of several immunoblots of PKB phosphorylation on Ser473 in homogenates corrected for the total amount of PKB, as described in METHODS. Values shown are means ± SE; n = 10–12 in each group. Phospho-Thr308, ANOVA P < 0.001, F = 9.89. Phospho-Ser473, ANOVA P < 0.001, F = 7.31. *P < 0.05 vs. T+0.5 h; {dagger}P < 0.05 vs. T+0.5 h.

 
TSC2 phosphorylation. Several proteins potentially modulate mTOR including the TSC. TSC consists of the gene products associated with the complex, namely hamartin (TSC1) and tuberin (TSC2) (50, 53). Both tuberin and hamartin are expressed in skeletal muscle. The tuberin-hamartin complex functions as an mTOR suppressor, ultimately resulting in diminished phosphorylation of S6K1 and 4E-BP1. The activity of TSC is regulated through phosphorylation. In vitro studies indicate that TSC2 phosphorylation is dependent on the PI 3K/PKB signaling pathway whereby activated PKB phosphorylates tuberin at residue Thr1462 (11, 19, 33). No information is available as to whether a similar mechanism occurs in vivo in the adult gastrocnemius in response to acute stimulation of PKB by meal feeding. In the present set of studies, we examined the phosphorylation of TSC2(Thr1462) during feeding and following withdrawal of food. The extent of phosphorylation of TSC2 was not significantly altered during meal feeding. In contrast, phosphorylation of TSC2 was significantly lower at T+9 h compared with prior to feeding (T–0.5 h; Fig. 7).


Figure 7
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  		Fig. 7. Effect of meal feeding on phosphorylation of tumor supressor complex 2 (TSC2). Equal amounts of protein in homogenates from gastrocnemius of animals described in Fig. 1 were immunoblotted with antibodies specific for the phosphorylated form of TSC2(Thr1462). Blots were stripped and immunoblotted with an antibody that recognizes both the phosphorylated and nonphosphorylated forms of TSC2. Bar graph shows the means of individual densitometric analysis of several immunoblots of TSC2 phosphorylation on Thr1462 in homogenates corrected for the total amount of TSC2, as described in METHODS. Values shown are means ± SE; n = 4 in each group. ANOVA P < 0.01, F = 4.45; *P < 0.05 vs. T–0.5 h.

 
Amino acid concentrations. Of the nutrients provided by a complete meal, amino acids are important for enhancing protein accretion in human skeletal muscle. For amino acids to be important in mediating the changes in eIF4F formation and eIF4G phosphorylation, they must rise above basal (T–0.5 h) within the first half-hour of meal feeding, remain elevated during the period of meal feeding (T+0.5 h, T+1 h, T+3 h), and return to basal levels when food is removed (T+6 h, T+9 h). To establish the potential amino acids responsible for these changes in eIF4F, we measured plasma amino acid concentrations using high-performance liquid chromatography techniques. The changes in plasma amino acids before, during, and after a meal are presented in Fig. 8. Alterations in amino acid concentrations did not show consistent patterns during meal feeding and following removal of food. Only four amino acids, leucine, isoleucine, valine, and serine, were significantly elevated at each time point during the meal-feeding period. The highest plasma concentrations observed during meal feeding (at T+3 h) were approximately threefold higher than the prefeeding period (T–0.5 h). Glycine was only elevated at T+0.5 h and not at other times, whereas methionine, histidine, threonine, and glutamine were significantly elevated only at T+1 h. There was not a significant elevation in the plasma concentrations of aspartate, glutamate, arginine, and lysine above basal concentrations during meal feeding. With removal of food, all of the amino acids that were elevated during the feeding period returned to basal levels within 3 h.


Figure 8
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  		Fig. 8. Effect of meal feeding on plasma amino acids. Plasma from animals described in Fig. 1 was obtained and deproteinized, and amino acids were determined by HPLC. Values shown are means ± SE; n = 4 at each time point. ANOVA Leu P < 0.0001, F = 29.05; Val P < 0.0001, F = 64.18; Iso P < 0.0001, F = 30.72; Arg P > 0.05; Glu P > 0.5; Phe P < 0.005, F = 6.21; Met P < 0.005, F = 8.06; Thr P < 0.005, F = 6.24; Tyr P < 0.001, F = 11.84; Ala P > 0.05; Gly P > 0.5; His P < 0.0005, F = 10.12; Pro P < 0.01, F = 4.43; Ser P < 0.0001, F = 17.69; Asp P < 0.05, F = 3.46; Gln P < 0.01, F = 4.93; and Lys P > 0.05. *P < 0.05 vs. T–0.5 h.

 
Meal feeding also enhances insulin secretion through both carbohydrate intake and elevation of amino acids that stimulate insulin secretion (e.g., leucine, phenylalanine). In the present study, the plasma insulin concentration was elevated during meal feeding and returned to prefeeding concentrations when food was withdrawn (Table 1).


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  		Table 1. Effect of meal feeding on plasma insulin concentrations

 

   DISCUSSION
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 ABSTRACT
 METHODS
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Control of translation initiation is an important means that tightly regulates the skeletal muscle protein accretion and growth through multiple effector proteins. Coordinated regulation of these processes occurs through activation or inhibition of multiple signaling pathways, allowing the skeletal muscle to integrate information regarding mitogenic signals and nutrient signals. The step in translation initiation catalyzed by eIF4F, i.e., binding of mRNA to the 43S preinitiation complex, appears to control protein synthesis (reviewed in Refs. 43, 45, 46, 49). eIF4F is considered the essential factor in promoting mRNAs for translation. eIF4E combines with eIF4G and eIF4A to form the heterotrimeric complex eIF4F. eIF4E catalyzes the unwinding of RNA secondary structure near the 5' cap and facilitates binding of mRNA to the 43S ribosome, thereby promoting translation initiation. eIF4E binds directly to the m7GTP cap structure present at the 5' end of most eukaryotic mRNAs. The eIF4E·mRNA complex then binds to the eIF4G that binds to or is already bound to the 40S ribosomal subunit. eIF4G is a large polypeptide that serves as a scaffold for eIF4E, eIF4A, the mRNA, and the ribosome. eIF4G is intimately involved with regulating the translation apparatus during the initiation phase of mRNA translation. eIF4G acts as a scaffold protein bringing together the eIF4E·mRNA complex and 43S preinitiation complex to allow initiation to proceed. Translation proceeds only when the eIF4E·eIF4G complex binds the mRNA to the ribosome. Assembly of the eIF4E·eIF4G complex was significantly enhanced in skeletal muscle from rats after meal feeding. Consequently, meal feeding may enhance peptide chain initiation in gastrocnemius by augmenting assembly of active eIF4E·eIF4G complex (56, 58).

One potential mechanism to account for increased binding of eIF4E to eIF4G following meal feeding may involve phosphorylation of eIF4G (34, 44). The present study indicates that meal feeding augmented the phosphorylation of eIF4G in gastrocnemius approximately twofold within 30 min of initiation of the meal. Furthermore, the extent of phosphorylation remains elevated over the course of the meal. This is in contrast to studies involving gonadaltropin-releasing hormone where the extent of phosphorylation of eIF4G was only transiently elevated during stimulation (36). The mechanism by which meal feeding-induced eIF4G phosphorylation stimulates eIF4G·eIF4E assembly remains unknown; however, increased phosphorylation of eIF4G correlates with conditions known to stimulate protein synthesis (8, 44).

Additional mechanisms for increasing formation of the eIF4G·eIF4E complex involve enhancing the availability of eIF4E to bind with eIF4G. eIF4E availability is controlled through a family of 4E-binding proteins (4E-BPs) (27, 38, 51), which function as translational repressors by competing with eIF4G for a common binding site on eIF4E (17, 32). The activity of 4E-BPs is controlled through phosphorylation. The nonphosphorylated isoforms of 4E-BPs bind to eIF4E with high affinity and prevent it from binding to eIF4G to form the translationally active eIF4F complex (17, 32). Conversely, the phosphorylation of 4E-BPs reduces the binding affinity for eIF4E and thereby relieves translational repression because eIF4E is able to bind to eIF4G. In the present study, meal feeding increased the phosphorylation of 4E-BP1 with a corresponding decrease in the abundance of the 4E-BP1·eIF4E complex. Consistent with this observation, other growth factors, such as insulin, also cause a shift of 4E-BPs into their hyperphosphorylated {gamma}-isoforms and dissociation of 4E-BPs from eIF4E in gastrocnemius (52, 61).

Other signaling pathways also appear to modulate translation initiation. S6K1 phosphorylates ribosomal protein S6, preferentially enhancing the translation of mRNAs containing 5'-TOP sequences, including translation components that make up the protein synthetic apparatus. According to the prevailing model of activation for S6K1, sites in the autoinhibitory domain (Ser411, Ser418, Thr421, and Ser424) are phosphorylated by an upstream kinase whose identity remains unresolved (16). Phosphorylation of these residues disrupts the interaction between the COOH-terminal and the NH2-terminal domains, permitting S6K1 to unfold, thereby exposing additional sites in the linker and kinase domains. Subsequently, the Thr389 residue in the linker domain is phosphorylated, and this step has been demonstrated to be necessary for full and functional activation of S6K1 (65, 66). In the present study, meal feeding stimulated the phosphorylation of Thr389 of S6K1. However, S6K1 phosphorylation was higher at T+0.5 h compared with either T+1 h or T+3 h, unlike 4E-BP1 phosphorylation. The initial rise in S6K1 phosphorylation parallels the initial phosphorylation of PKB. The sustained elevation of S6K1 correlated with mTOR phosphorylation at T+1 h or T+3 h.

mTOR is reported to be a common intermediate involved in mRNA translation control produced by growth factors (for review see Ref. 20) by acting as the upstream kinase responsible for phosphorylating 4E-BP1 and S6K1 (9, 42). Phosphorylation of mTOR on residues Ser2448 and Ser2481 has been used to monitor the activity of mTOR (6, 39). As such, altered mTOR phosphorylation appears to represent an important nexus for the observed changes in translation initiation. Therefore, we examined the phosphorylation state of Ser2448 and Ser2481 following meal feeding. Meal feeding caused a significant increase in phosphorylation of mTOR(Ser2448). Mutation of this phosphorylation site to a nonphosphorylatable alanine residue does not prevent the PI 3-kinase- or PKB-dependent stimulation of S6K1 and 4E-BP1 phosphorylation in rapamycin-treated HEK 293 cells (47). Ser2481 has been identified as an mTOR autophosphorylation site (39). Mutation to Ser2481 does not appear to influence S6K1 activity or mTOR autokinase activity (39). Furthermore, Ser2481 phosphorylation is only marginally enhanced upon PKB activation. The phosphorylation of mTOR was similar to that of Ser2448. Thus the extent to which this site-specific phosphorylation affects mTOR activity is unclear, and this event may simply reflect a response to upstream kinases functioning in a PKB-independent fashion.

PKB has been implicated as an upstream activator of both mTOR and S6K1 phosphorylation (35, 47). In the present study, we were able to show that PKB phosphorylation on either Thr308 or Ser473 is increased 2.5-fold 30 min following meal feeding. Thereafter, phosphorylation of PKB on Thr308 and Ser473 was decreased by T+1 h compared with T+0.5 h. The extent of phosphorylation of PKB at T+1 h was not significantly different from values observed in animals at T+3 h or following removal of food. Unlike mTOR phosphorylation, the stimulation of PKB phosphorylation was not maintained during the entire feeding period. Instead, PKB phosphorylation was elevated within 30 min of initiation of the feeding regimen and fell afterward. The initial peak of PKB phosphorylation occurs temporally with the peak phosphorylation of mTOR and S6K1, consistent with the proposed role of PKB in phosphorylation of mTOR and S6K1 (35, 47). However, stimulation of PKB phosphorylation cannot account for the enhanced phosphorylation of 4E-BP1 or eIF4G, which remained significantly elevated throughout the feeding period.

Hamartin and tuberin interact to form a stable TSC. It has been hypothesized that hamartin and tuberin are responsible for the activity of the TSC and function together in the complex to inhibit mTOR-mediated signaling to 4E-BP1 and S6K1 in transformed cells in culture (50). TSC2 lacks a kinase domain and as such regulates mTOR through indirect mechanisms. Tuberin has a GTPase-activating protein (GAP) domain toward the Ras family small GTPase called Rheb (RAS homolog enriched in brain) (14, 19, 50, 68). Rheb stimulates the phosphorylation of mTOR on Ser2448 in response to stimuli known to enhance mTOR activity, including activation of PKB (19). Tuberin-dependent stimulation of GTP hydrolysis of Rheb blocks phosphorylation of mTOR(Ser2448), which antagonizes the mTOR-signaling pathway. Hence, phosphorylation of Thr1462 on TSC2 limits the tuberin/hamartin complex reductions of Rheb-GTPase activity, thereby relieving inhibition mTOR.

In vitro studies indicate that TSC2 phosphorylation appear dependent on the PI 3-kinase/PKB-signaling pathway whereby activated PKB phosphorylates tuberin at residue Thr1462 (11, 19, 33). In the present set of studies, we examined the potential role of changes in phosphorylation in tuberin following meal feeding in gastrocnemius in vivo. Meal feeding did not significantly enhance the phosphorylation of TSC2 despite increased phosphorylation of PKB at T+0.5 h. This result is consistent with previous reports showing that enhanced PKB phosphorylation was not associated with phosphorylation of TSC2 in cardiac muscle stimulated with IGF-I (59). There are several potential reasons for the lack of effects of meal feeding on TSC2 in gastrocnemius. First, studies providing evidence for TSC-dependent regulation of mTOR were performed using cells in culture rather than in skeletal muscle. Second, skeletal muscle is exposed to a wide variety of growth factors and nutrients in vivo that may modulate TSC2 phosphorylation. Thus TSC2 phosphorylation may be maximal under the in vivo conditions examined; hence, PKB activation cannot further increase TSC2 phosphorylation.

In summary, the findings provide additional insights into the processes involved in the stimulation of protein synthesis by meal feeding in gastrocnemius. Meal feeding enhanced the assembly of the active eIF4G·eIF4E complex, which returned to basal levels within 3 h of removal of food. The increased assembly of the active eIF4G·eIF4E complex was associated with a marked tenfold rise in phosphorylation of eIF4G(Ser1108) and a decreased assembly of inactive 4E-BP1·eIF4E complex. The reduced assembly of 4E-BP1·eIF4E complex was associated with a 75-fold increase in phosphorylation of 4E-BP1 in the {gamma}-form during feeding. Likewise, phosphorylation of S6K1 on Ser789 was increased by meal feeding, although the extent of phosphorylation was greater at 0.5 h after feeding than after 1 h. Phosphorylation on Ser2448 or Ser2481 of mTOR, an upstream kinase responsible for phosphorylating both S6K1 and 4E-BP1, was increased at all times during meal feeding, although the extent of phosphorylation was greater at 0.5 h after feeding than after 1 h. Phosphorylation of PKB, an upstream kinase responsible in part for phosphorylating mTOR, was elevated only after 0.5 h of meal feeding for Thr308. Phosphorylation of PKB on Ser473 was significantly elevated at both 0.5 and 1 h after initiation of feeding, but the extent of phosphorylation decreased over this time. However, it was not elevated 3 h after feeding, a time when mTOR phosphorylation was elevated.

Perspectives

We suggest that the results are consistent with the following scenario for stimulation of assembly of eIF4G·eIF4E complex following meal feeding. Meal feeding causes a rise in both insulin and certain amino acids, including leucine. The initial rise in insulin causes stimulation of PI 3-kinase/PKB-signal pathway leading to enhanced mTOR phosphorylation and subsequent stimulation of phosphorylation of S6K1 and 4E-BP1. However, this stimulation of PKB is not maintained throughout the feeding period. Whereas PKB phosphorylation returns to baseline values, mTOR activation continues presumably because of the elevation of plasma amino acid concentrations. The branched-chain amino acids are the most robust of the plasma amino acids in their ability to cause increased phosphorylation of mTOR (28, 29). Meal feeding-induced activation of mTOR phosphorylation is maintained as long as the food is present. With removal of food, the assembly of eIF4G·eIF4E returns to levels observed before feeding. The reversal of the effects of meal feeding correlate with a fall in both plasma insulin and amino acid concentrations. Thus our findings are consistent with previous reports suggesting that acute leucine-induced stimulation of protein synthesis and the phosphorylation states of 4E-BP1 and S6K1 are facilitated by the transient increases in serum insulin concentrations (4, 7). We suggest that meal feeding stimulates mRNA translation initiation through both insulin-dependent and -independent mechanisms mediated by increased assembly of active eIF4F complex and phosphorylation of 4E-BP1, eIF4G, and S6K1.


   GRANTS
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 METHODS
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 GRANTS
REFERENCES
 
This work was supported in part by National Institute of General Medical Sciences Grant GM-39277 (T. C. Vary) and National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases Grants DK-053843 and DK-062880 (C. J. Lynch).


   ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
 
We thank Dr. Leonard S. Jefferson from this institution for kindly providing the eIF4E antibodies used in this study.


   FOOTNOTES
 

Address for reprint requests and other correspondence: T. C. Vary, Dept. of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Rm. C4710, Penn State Univ. College of Medicine, H166, 500 University Dr., Hershey, PA 17033 (e-mail: tvary{at}psu.edu)

The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.


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